Khamis, 18 Julai 2013

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls—on a single chip.
In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.















Computer Components

Computers come in all types and sizes. There are primarily two main sizes of computers. They are:
  • Portable
  • Desktop
The portable computer comes in various sizes and are referred to as laptops, notebooks, and hand-held computers. These generally denote different sizes, the laptop being the largest, and the hand-held is the smallest size. This document will mainly talk about the desktop computer although portable computer issues are also discussed in various areas.

Computer Components:

Computers are made of the following basic components:
  1. Case with hardware inside:

    1. Power Supply - The power supply comes with the case, but this component is mentioned separately since there are various types of power supplies. The one you should get depends on the requirements of your system. This will be discussed in more detail later

    2. Motherboard - This is where the core components of your computer reside which are listed below. Also the support cards for video, sound, networking and more are mounted into this board.

      1. Microprocessor - This is the brain of your computer. It performs commands and instructions and controls the operation of the computer.
      2. Memory - The RAM in your system is mounted on the motherboard. This is memory that must be powered on to retain its contents.
      3. Drive controllers - The drive controllers control the interface of your system to your hard drives. The controllers let your hard drives work by controlling their operation. On most systems, they are included on the motherboard, however you may add additional controllers for faster or other types of drives.

  • Hard disk drive(s) - This is where your files are permanently stored on your computer. Also, normally, your operating system is installed here.

  • CD-ROM drive(s) - This is normally a read only drive where files are permanently stored. There are now read/write CD-ROM drives that use special software to allow users to read from and write to these drives.

  • Floppy drive(s) - A floppy is a small disk storage device that today typically has about 1.4 Megabytes of memory capacity.

  • Other possible file storage devices include DVD devices, Tape backup devices, and some others.

  • Monitor - This device which operates like a TV set lets the user see how the computer is responding to their commands.

  • Keyboard - This is where the user enters text commands into the computer.

  • Mouse - A point and click interface for entering commands which works well in graphical environments.
    • These various parts will be discussed in the following sections.

















    Advantages & Disadvantages of Using Computer Technology in Decision Making

    by Crystal Vogt, Demand Media
    With the advent of technology, computers can now make many well-informed decisions that managers or office workers may deem unnecessary for a human to make. These decisions may include crunching profit numbers to determine future layoffs or gauging whether certain global offices should remain open or not. If you are evaluating whether computerized decision making is right for your organization, there are advantages and disadvantages to implementing the technology into your corporate strategy.

    Storage

    While human brains can contain a high level of information to use in making a decision, a computer's "brain" can contain even more data and information, depending on the storage space it is connected to. With a higher capacity for more data, especially data that a human brain might not retain, such as complex equations, more information can be incorporated into the "brain" or algorithm of the computer in its decision making, leading to better results.

    Speed and Accuracy

    Computers can process information much faster than a human brain. One advantage to computers making decisions is that you will have decisions made faster and more accurately than a human brain, which may get hung up with different factors involving the decision, leading to slower overall results. Also, unlike people who can become tired or suffer from a lack of concentration and deliver inaccurate decisions, a well-tuned computer is always alert and can process reams of information without growing bored or tired, leading to more precise results.

    High Cost

    The high cost of purchasing the right computer equipment, including a high amount of computer memory and store, is one disadvantage to computer technology in decision making. Also, the cost of a computer professional to write the algorithm you'll need for your type of decision can come at a high price. By the time your equipment is purchased and your algorithm is written, it may also already be obsolete since technology is constantly advancing and building on what already works to make it better.

    Employee Morale and Subjectivity

    With a computer making decisions, certain managers may feel that their own decision-making skills aren't seen as important, which can diminish employee morale. Also, unlike people who can be subjective and rational, computers can only be rational. By eliminating subjectivity in the decision-making process, the result may lack certain elements you are concerned about.












































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